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8 8 HE = ' HE = = p = a x5 & = 4E F 0 F = -L : -L = = . -L ? < ' ' = ' ' ' ' ' nE nE 0= ' ' ' F ' ' ' ' -L ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' : 11th MEETING OF THE CONFERENCE OF THE PARTIES
Quito, Ecuador, 4-9 November 2014
Agenda Item 24.1.1
CMS
CONVENTION ON
MIGRATORY
SPECIESDistribution: General
UNEP/CMS/COP11/Doc.24.1.4/Rev.1
19 September 2014
Original: English
Proposal FOR THE INCLUSION OF
THE global population of the great bustard (Otis tarda)
In CMS Appendix I
PROPOSAL FOR INCLUSION OF SPECIES ON THE APPENDICES OF THE
CONVENTION ON THE CONSERVATION OF MIGRATORY SPECIES OF
WILD ANIMALS
A. PROPOSAL: To list the global population of Great Bustard, Otis tarda, on Appendix I
B. PROPONENT: Government of Mongolia
C. SUPPORTING STATEMENT
1. Taxon
1.1 Classis: Aves
1.2 Ordo: Gruiformes
1.3 Familia: Otididae
1.4 Species: Otis tarda, including both subspecies, O.t. tarda and O.t. dybowskii
1.5 Common name(s): Great Bustard, Abetarda-comum, Avutarda, Grande Outarde, Grotrappe, Tzok, @>E20, C040, %>=8=">>4>3, @>D0, 'Y(
2 . B i o l o g i c a l d a t a
2 . 1 D i s t r i b u t i o n
2 . 1 . 1 C u r r e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n
T h e G r e a t B u s t a r d b r e e d s a t d i s c r e t e , t r a d i t i o n a l d i s p l a y s i t e s ( l e k s ) a c r o s s E u r a s i a f r o m P o r t u g a l t o M a n c h u r i a A D D I N C S L _ C I T A T I O N { " c i t a t i o n I t e m s" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Butchart", "given" : "Stuart H M", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Symes", "given" : "A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "IUCN Red List for birds", "editor" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bird Life International", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2014" ] ] }, "publisher-place" : "Cambridge, UK", "title" : "Species factsheet: Otis tarda", "type" : "chapter" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=b17b79e9-0ed1-4629-b3ee-bab98f08079f" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "manualFormatting" : "(Figure 1; Butchart & Symes 2014)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Butchart and Symes 2014)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Figure 1; Butchart & Symes 2014). The northern limits of this breeding range currently include the UK, Germany and northern Kazakhstan. The current southern limit of the Great Bustards breeding range is described by northern Morocco, Turkey, and Nei Mongol in the Peoples Republic of China. This breeding distribution is characterized by a high degree of fragmentation, particularly outside of Iberia and the southwestern Russian Federation.
Irruptive movements bring Great Bustards in central Europe into countries of southern Europe. Populations in Turkey and eastward through Eurasia make regular migrations to distinct wintering grounds as far south as the Syrian Arab Republic, and Anhui Province of China.
Figure 1. Current distribution of Great Bustard. Green represents habitat used year-round by some portion of the population; yellow represents breeding grounds; blue represents wintering grounds. Breeding ranges described in Kazakhstan, Mongolia, the southeastern Russian Federation and China would be more accurately represented by a number of dots, reflecting small, fragmented populations. Source: ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Collar", "given" : "Nigel J", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Handbook of Birds of the World. Vol. 3: Hoatzin to Auks", "editor" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hoyo", "given" : "Josep", "non-dropping-particle" : "Del", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Elliott", "given" : "Andrew", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Sargatal", "given" : "Jordi", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1996" ] ] }, "page" : "240-273", "publisher" : "Lynx Edicions", "publisher-place" : "Barcelona, Spain", "title" : "Family Otididae (bustards)", "type" : "chapter" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=9b687cda-e02c-4c9b-bb45-c00d97375873" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "manualFormatting" : "Collar (1996)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Collar 1996)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }Collar (1996).
2.1.2 Historic distribution
Whereas the current distribution of Great Bustards is characterized in most portions of its range by small, disjunct populations, this species was once found more continuously across the steppe and desert-steppe belt of Eurasia, as well as North Africa and throughout cereal agriculture in western Europe. Breeding populations of Great Bustards were extirpated from Algeria, the Balkans, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, France, Poland, Romania, the Syrian Arab Republic, Tajikistan, Tunisia, and the UK (where they were reintroduced in 2004), in the 19th and 20th centuries. The number of distinct breeding populations (leks) as well as the number of individuals within remaining leks has decreased in areas of central and eastern Europe, the Middle East (Turkey and Iran), Kazakhstan and east Asia (the southeastern Russian Federation, Mongolia China).
As a result of these declines in breeding populations, Great Bustards now only rarely visit countries of the Middle East, Caucasus and Central Asia where they once regularly overwintered.
Subspecies: The nominate subspecies Otis tarda tarda is found from Portugal through Xinjiang, China. O. t. dybowskii inhabits areas east of the Altai Mountain range, in the southeastern Russian Federation, Mongolia and eastern China.
2.2 Population
The global population of the Great Bustard is estimated between 44,000 and 57,000 individuals ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.5122/cbirds.2010.0007", "abstract" : "The Great Bustard (Otis tarda) world population is estimated to be 44100\u201357000 indi- viduals in 2010, of which about 57\u201370% occur in Spain, 15\u201325% in European Russia, 4\u201310% in China, Mongolia and south-eastern Russia, 3\u20134% in Portugal, 3% in Hungary, 1\u20132% in Turkey, and smaller numbers in ten other countries. The reliability of current censuses and estimates may be described as high for a large fraction of the world population (67\u201375%), and low for the remaining 25\u201333% (including Russia, Mongolia, China, Turkey, Ukraine, Iran and Kazakhstan). In spite of continued declines reported for some countries (e.g., Turkey, Iran, China), the present survey suggests that total numbers have not significantly decreased worldwide during the last decade, as opposed to the globally declining trend currently assumed. This is due to a large fraction of the world total living in countries whose overall surveys are apparently stable (e.g., Spain, Portugal), after a noticeable recovery during the last few decades once the hunting ban was established. Only 6\u201310% of the world total is apparently still decreasing, mostly due to agricultural intensification, other causes of habitat degradation, and locally, also illegal hunting and collision with power lines. A small fraction of the world population (3\u20134%), is clearly (Germany, Austria) or apparently (Hungary) increasing, due to management and conservation measures. Finally, 19\u201322% of the world total has an uncertain status, due to inaccurate current or past censuses which prevent establishing reliable population trends. We recommend 1) keeping conservation efforts and the species\u2019 protection status worldwide, and 2) carrying out urgently nationwide surveys in countries with low quality estimates, in order to confirm world numbers and trends.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Alonso", "given" : "Juan Carlos", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Palac\u00edn", "given" : "Carlos A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Chinese Birds", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2010" ] ] }, "page" : "141-147", "title" : "The world status and population trends of the great bustard (Otis tarda): 2010 update", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "1" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=21d833c2-12b9-47ce-9f9b-ada4ab6eb6de" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Alonso and Palac\u00edn 2010)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Alonso and Palacn 2010). The majority (57-70%) of this population is found in the Iberian Peninsula, with the second largest population center (15-25%) located in the southwestern Russian Federation. These populations are relatively stable.
Populations in central Europe representing 3-4% of the worlds Great Bustards, which have been listed under Appendix I of CMS via the Memorandum of Understanding on the Middle-European Population of Great Bustard, are increasing.
However, across the greater part of this species distribution, populations are declining. Over the past fifty years, rapid declines have occurred in the eastern half of the species range, where Great Bustards have been completely eliminated from many regions.
There is particular concern for the eastern subspecies of Great Bustard (O. t. dybowskii), of which only 1,200-2,000 individuals are estimated to remain in the southeastern Russian Federation, Mongolia, and eastern China ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Tseveenmyadag", "given" : "Natsagdorj", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Proceedings Institute of Biology, Mongolian Academy of Sciences", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2001" ] ] }, "page" : "142-158", "title" : "Great bustard (Otis tarda dybowskii L.) in Mongolia", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "23" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=5d59ca4a-c16d-449f-86a8-1327ff48f27c" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Chan", "given" : "Simba", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Goroshko", "given" : "Oleg Anatol'evich", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1998" ] ] }, "publisher" : "BirdLife International", "publisher-place" : "Tokyo, Japan", "title" : "Action plan for conservation of the great bustard", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=82293484-13fc-4bbe-bbcf-bb3e6d1fbea3" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-3", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.5122/cbirds.2010.0007", "abstract" : "The Great Bustard (Otis tarda) world population is estimated to be 44100\u201357000 indi- viduals in 2010, of which about 57\u201370% occur in Spain, 15\u201325% in European Russia, 4\u201310% in China, Mongolia and south-eastern Russia, 3\u20134% in Portugal, 3% in Hungary, 1\u20132% in Turkey, and smaller numbers in ten other countries. The reliability of current censuses and estimates may be described as high for a large fraction of the world population (67\u201375%), and low for the remaining 25\u201333% (including Russia, Mongolia, China, Turkey, Ukraine, Iran and Kazakhstan). In spite of continued declines reported for some countries (e.g., Turkey, Iran, China), the present survey suggests that total numbers have not significantly decreased worldwide during the last decade, as opposed to the globally declining trend currently assumed. This is due to a large fraction of the world total living in countries whose overall surveys are apparently stable (e.g., Spain, Portugal), after a noticeable recovery during the last few decades once the hunting ban was established. Only 6\u201310% of the world total is apparently still decreasing, mostly due to agricultural intensification, other causes of habitat degradation, and locally, also illegal hunting and collision with power lines. A small fraction of the world population (3\u20134%), is clearly (Germany, Austria) or apparently (Hungary) increasing, due to management and conservation measures. Finally, 19\u201322% of the world total has an uncertain status, due to inaccurate current or past censuses which prevent establishing reliable population trends. We recommend 1) keeping conservation efforts and the species\u2019 protection status worldwide, and 2) carrying out urgently nationwide surveys in countries with low quality estimates, in order to confirm world numbers and trends.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Alonso", "given" : "Juan Carlos", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Palac\u00edn", "given" : "Carlos A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Chinese Birds", "id" : "ITEM-3", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2010" ] ] }, "page" : "141-147", "title" : "The world status and population trends of the great bustard (Otis tarda): 2010 update", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "1" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=21d833c2-12b9-47ce-9f9b-ada4ab6eb6de" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Chan and Goroshko 1998, Tseveenmyadag 2001, Alonso and Palac\u00edn 2010)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Chan and Goroshko 1998, Tseveenmyadag 2001, Alonso and Palacn 2010). These remnant populations are declining, isolated, and suffer from a lack of genetic diversity ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "Great bustards Otis tarda dybowskii populations are declining in China. To determine reasons for this decline and to assist conservation, the genetic diversity of great bustards was analyzed by microsatellite DNA markers. Three microsatellites from great bustard O. t. tarda and 13 from Houbara bustard Chlamydotis undulate were detected in 47 great bustards O. t. dybowskii. Eight microsatellite were polymorphic, 3 of which were low polymorphic and the remaining 5 highly polymorphic. The heterozygosity of the 8 loci ranged from 0.0435 to 1.0000, averaging 0.6595 per locus, polymophism Information Contant from 0.0416 to 0.8520, averaging 0.5497 per locus, and the effective number from 1.04 to 7.46, 3.61 alleles per locus on average. The observed genotype frequencies at 4 loci were consistent with Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium (HWE) and the remaining 4 loci were significantly deviated from HWE. The results show that genetic diversity of O.t.dybowskii is lower than O.t.tarda. This may be caused by the smaller population size, genetic bottleneck in history\uff0cand fragmentated or concentrated geographical distribution", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Tian", "given" : "Xiu-Hua", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Liu", "given" : "Zhu", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bai", "given" : "Su-Ying", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Acta Zoologica Sinica", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2006" ] ] }, "note" : " From Duplicate 1 ( Microsatellite analysis of genetic diversity of the great bustard Otis tarda dybowskii - Tian, Xiu-Hua; Liu, Zhu; Bai, Su-Ying )\n \n From Duplicate 2 ( Microsatellite analysis of genetic diversity of the great bustard Otis tarda dybowskii - Tian, Xiu-Hua; Liu, Zhu; Bai, Su-Ying )\n \n \n \n \n \n From Duplicate 2 ( Microsatellite analysis of genetic diversity of the great bustard Otis tarda dybowskii - Tian, Xiu-Hua; Liu, Zhu; Bai, Su-Ying; Xiu-Hua, Tian; Zhu, Liu; Su-Ying, Bai )\n \n From Duplicate 1 ( Microsatellite analysis of genetic diversity of the great bustard Otis tarda dybowskii - Xiu-Hua, Tian; Zhu, Liu; Su-Ying, Bai )\n \n \n \n From Duplicate 2 ( Microsatellite analysis of genetic diversity of the great bustard Otis tarda dybowskii - Tian, Xiu-Hua; Liu, Zhu; Bai, Su-Ying )\n \n From Duplicate 2 ( Microsatellite analysis of genetic diversity of the great bustard Otis tarda dybowskii - Tian, Xiu-Hua; Liu, Zhu; Bai, Su-Ying )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n ", "page" : "569-574", "title" : "Microsatellite analysis of genetic diversity of the great bustard Otis tarda dybowskii", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "52" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=22c9ae81-95fd-4552-b38f-cc19a79f5819" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Tian et al. 2006)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Tian et al. 2006). Increasing threats to these populations are observed as infrastructure is developed and human settlement increases in these regions of Asia.
2.3 Habitat
Great Bustards are historically a species of open grasslands, breeding in steppe and desert-steppe zones of Eurasia as well as portions of northern Africa. The species expanded into Western Europe as forests were cleared for agriculture ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "none", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Isakov", "given" : "Yu A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1974" ] ] }, "page" : "433\u2013444", "title" : "Present distribution and population status of the great bustard, Otis tarda Linnaeus", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "71" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=2eaab367-6be8-49ba-a0ad-d8c59e466ea5" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Isakov 1974)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Isakov 1974). Today, agricultural fields are the only available breeding habitat for Great Bustards in some areas. Active, fallow, and abandoned cereal fields are used by the species, where they feed primarily on insects and non-cereal vegetationADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "Capsule Arthropods are the most important diet component of Great Bustards Otis tarda in the first months of life. Aims \u0422\u043e determine the diet composition of young Great Bustards in Spain. Methods The diet was estimated \u042c\u0443 stomach content analysis (n = 49). Results Stomach contents' dry weight consisted of 33% arthropods, 30% green plant material and 23% seeds. Gastroliths were only found in summer and autumn. The diet composition changed significantly between seasons. ln summer, diet consisted mainly of arthropods (50%), with green plant material being the main component in winter (56%). Volume of stomach contents and mean size of ingested arthropods were higher in males than in females. Diet composition did not differ between sexes. ln summer, ground- dwelling and plant-visiting arthropods such as Mantidae, Tenebrionidae and caterpillars were the most abundant. ln winter, weeds, legumes and cultivated seeds were more frequent than arthropods. Cereal plants were the least consumed in all seasons, although Barley and Wheat seeds played an important role during winter and autumn. Conclusion The results highlight the importance of arthropods and weeds as \u0430 fundamental component of the diet of young Great Bustards. Because previous studies show that arthropods and weeds are usually more abundant in extensive farming, we recommend the implementation of agri-environmental measures in", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bravo", "given" : "Carolina", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Ponce", "given" : "Carlos", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Palac\u00edn", "given" : "Carlos A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Alonso", "given" : "Juan Carlos", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Bird Study", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2013" ] ] }, "page" : "243-251", "title" : "Diet of young great bustards Otis tarda in Spain: sexual and seasonal differences", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "59" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=932fce89-9016-4466-8b7c-7745126bc080" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "Faecal analysis was used to study the diet of great bustards in north-west Spain on a monthly basis for 1 year. After correction for differential digestibility, the diet composition by dry weight varied from 48.4% green plant material, 40.9% invertebrates and 10.6% seeds in August, to consisting almost completely of green plant material between December and March. At least 65 plant species were represented in the green plant material, but most occurred rarely and the bulk of this portion of the diet consisted of alfalfa. Eight invertebrate orders were detected in the faeces, of which Coleoptera, Hymenoptera and Orthoptera were most important by numbers. From August to November when seeds were important by dry weight, wheat and barley seeds were found in more faecal pellets than other species. Estimates of use and abundance were obtained to evaluate diet selection in the green plant material and invertebrate components. Alfalfa was strongly selected throughout the year, but grasses were used less often than expected. Coleoptera were always eaten in greater numbers than expected, Orthoptera were used either in proportion to abundance or less often than expected, and Hymenoptera less often in May, more often in September and November, and as expected at other times. The results support the suggestion that increasing alfalfa cultivation would be a useful management tool for maintaining endangered great bustard populations, but further work on the cost-effectiveness of this option is needed.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lane", "given" : "Simon J", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Alonso", "given" : "Juan Carlos", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Alonso", "given" : "Javier A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Naveso", "given" : "M A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of Zoology", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1999" ] ] }, "page" : "201-214", "title" : "Seasonal changes in diet and diet selection of great bustards (Otis t. tarda) in north-west Spain", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "247" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=3b23a5ae-41ba-4800-abb2-6c13d55c4463" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Lane et al. 1999, Bravo et al. 2013)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Lane et al. 1999, Bravo et al. 2013). The eastern subspecies is notable for its use of forest edges and small forest clearings as well as pastured grassland and cereal agricultural mosaics ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Goroshko", "given" : "Oleg Anatol'evich", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1999" ] ] }, "publisher" : "\u042d\u043a\u043e\u0446\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0440 \u0414\u0430\u0443\u0440\u0438\u044f [Dauria EcoCenter]", "publisher-place" : "Chita, Russia", "title" : "\u0414\u0440\u043e\u0444\u0430 \u0432 \u0437\u0430\u0431\u0430\u0439\u043a\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0435 \u0438 \u043f\u0443\u0442\u0438 \u0435\u0435 \u0441\u043f\u0430\u0441\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f [The Great Bustard in Zabaikaliya and route to its conservation]", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=c330df85-a587-4747-ac67-0a1fe389a59c" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "manualFormatting" : "(Goroshko 1999, Kessler in litt.)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Goroshko 1999)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Goroshko 1999, Kessler in litt.).
Wintering habitat is similar to breeding habitat. Great Bustards in agricultural fields feed on cereal stubble or alfalfa at this time of yearADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "1. Great bustards Otis tarda are globally endangered and 50% of the world population now occurs in agro-steppe habitats in Spain. An understanding of the relationship between land use and the species\u2019 habitat requirements is necessary to predict the consequences of land-use change on this declining species. 2. A 2-year study of great bustard substrate preferences was conducted in a large region in central Spain where most cereals are still cultivated in a traditional 2-year rotation. 3. Great bustards showed year-round selection of stubble fields, but avoided ploughed and uncultivated areas. Other substrate types were variously selected, avoided or used in proportion to availability depending on season. Patterns were consistent over 2 years. 4. Human artefacts such as roads, tracks and powerlines were avoided. 5. Variables correlating with flock locations could not discriminate between occupied and unoccupied but apparently suitable areas of traditionally managed cereal steppe. This suggests that great bustard distribution in central Spain is not limited by inappropriate land use in steppe areas. 6. The evidence suggests that great bustards show fidelity to sites regardless of the avail- ability of suitable habitat elsewhere. Settlement patterns are probably determined by the presence of conspecifics rather than habitat cues. This result demonstrates the value of integrating observations of habitat use with knowledge of species\u2019 behaviour in order to understand distribution more fully. 7. We propose that conservation efforts should be directed towards securing traditional lek sites and we make three recommendations: first all great bustard lek sites should be identified; secondly, existing European Union legislation should be used to protect these and to ensure that compatible land management practices are applied or maintained; and finally, research programmes should be conducted that aim to enhance the conservation value of stubble fields rather than simply demonstrate their selection", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lane", "given" : "Simon J", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Alonso", "given" : "Juan Carlos", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Mart\u00edn", "given" : "Carlos A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of Applied Ecology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2001" ] ] }, "page" : "193-203", "title" : "Habitat preferences of great bustard Otis tarda flocks in the arable steppes of central Spain: are potentially suitable areas unoccupied?", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "38" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=bfb07cab-9266-44df-aa42-21163a0e7914" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Lane et al. 2001)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Lane et al. 2001).
2.4 Migrations and international movements
Great Bustards display a variety of migratory patterns across their broad geographic range, with length and duration of migration generally increasing longitudinally from west to east. This migratory behaviour and other patterns of movement (e.g. dispersal of young birds) frequently involve the crossing of one or more international borders.
Iberian populations are partially migratory, exhibiting an assortment of short seasonal movements of 10-200 km distance ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "We examined the seasonal movements of wing-tagged and radio-marked adult female Great Bustards Otis tarda in a population in northwestern Spain. Four different movement patterns were found: females that migrated between breeding and wintering areas (20%), females that only left their year-round home range area to mate (32%), females that migrated from a wintering-mating area to a nesting-summering area (16%), and females that stayed all year round within a relatively small home range area (32%). All females displayed fidelity to their nesting and wintering areas, and most also showed fidelity to their leks. Migration patterns were not affected either in timing or distance by breeding success. The maximum distance between natal and dispersal locations during their first year of life was significantly higher in migratory females than in sedentary ones. These patterns explained the seasonal variations in population numbers observed in the study area. Surveys showed that the number of females increased from 600\u2013700 breeding birds, with 1,000\u20131,100 birds present from October to March.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Alonso", "given" : "Juan Carlos", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Morales", "given" : "Manuel B", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Alonso", "given" : "Javier A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Condor", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2000" ] ] }, "note" : "Use site where female was first seen with their chicks as a proxy for nest sites\n \n2km distance between nesting sites year to year\n \nFEMALES MATING AT DISTANT LEK", "page" : "127-136", "title" : "Partial migration, and lek and nesting area fidelity in female great bustards", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "102" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=a8f9fe5c-f7ea-469b-ae33-6efea3aea9e8" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "A sample of 22 radio-tagged male Great Bustards from central Iberian populations was studied from 1996 to 1998. All birds undertook seasonal movements to postbreeding areas located up to 167 km away from their leks. Departures from leks occurred between May and July, with most birds moving northeast to summering areas. Approximately 47% of the males spent only the summer away from their leks, returning to leks between September and December. Other males overwintered in areas located to the southeast, returning to lek sites between January and March.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Alonso", "given" : "Javier A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Mart\u00edn", "given" : "Carlos A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Alonso", "given" : "Juan Carlos", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Morales", "given" : "Manuel B", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lane", "given" : "Simon J", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of Field Ornithology", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "4", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2001" ] ] }, "page" : "504\u2013508", "publisher" : "BioOne", "title" : "Seasonal movements of male great bustards in central Spain", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "72" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=550c65e7-7354-40e7-bb60-69a6bd7beacc" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Alonso et al. 2000, 2001)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Alonso et al. 2000, 2001). There was likely once regular genetic exchange between populations in Spain, Portugal and Morocco ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Broderick", "given" : "Damien", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Idaghdour", "given" : "Y", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Korrida", "given" : "A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hellmich", "given" : "J", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Conservation Genetics", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "6", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2003" ] ] }, "page" : "793\u2013800", "publisher" : "Springer", "title" : "Gene flow in great bustard populations across the Strait of Gibraltar as elucidated from excremental PCR and mtDNA sequencing", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "4" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=8f77fcb4-a521-4dcc-a68a-5743771338cb" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Broderick et al. 2003)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Broderick et al. 2003), but dispersal especially to Morocco has diminished as populations on both sides of the Strait of Gibraltar have reduced ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1007/s10592-008-9605-2", "abstract" : "We studied the genetic diversity of great bus- tards (Otis tarda) in Iberia and Morocco, the main stronghold of this globally endangered species. Samples were collected from 327 individuals covering most of the distribution range within the study area. Sequence variation in a 657 bp fragment of the mtDNA control region revealed 20 variable sites defining 22 haplotypes, two of them exclusive to Morocco. Genetic diversity showed marked regional differences (p = 0\u20130.53, h = 0\u20130.89). Multidi- mensional scaling analysis based on FST values showed a clear division between Morocco and the Iberian Peninsula, with no evidence of current gene flow between them. Our results suggest that Morocco, where few matrilines have persisted to present, was colonized from Iberia thousands of years ago. Last century reports suggest dispersal through Gibraltar, when the species was more abundant at both sides of the Strait but later population declines and the Strait\u2019s barrier effect have favoured current genetic isolation. Within Iberia, only the most peripheral populations (Navarra, Arago \u00b4n and Andalusia) differed significantly from the main ones in central Spain. The first two showed extremely low genetic diversity and are probably threatened by inbreeding depression. Diversity was higher in Andalusia, where three exclusive haplotypes were found, suggesting some degree of isolation from other populations. Andalusia and Morocco could be regarded as separate management units which hold a significant pro- portion of the current genetic diversity and thus deserve urgent conservation measures.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Alonso", "given" : "Juan Carlos", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Mart\u00edn", "given" : "Carlos A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Alonso", "given" : "Javier A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Palac\u00edn", "given" : "Carlos A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Maga\u00f1a", "given" : "Marina", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lieckfeldt", "given" : "Dietmar", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Pitra", "given" : "Christian", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Conservation Genetics", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2009" ] ] }, "page" : "379-390", "title" : "Genetic diversity of the great bustard in Iberia and Morocco: risks from current population fragmentation", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "10" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=3e285c09-46fc-4e1c-a857-fae0cd9845e3" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Alonso et al. 2009a)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Alonso et al. 2009a).
Populations in central Europe tend towards sedentary behaviour, but facultative migrations of up to 650 km have been recorded in response to severe winter weather, bringing these birds to States in southern Europe ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1007/s10344-005-0007-1", "ISSN" : "1612-4642", "abstract" : "The Great Bustard is on the brink of extinction in Central Europe. Its population is known to suffer high mortality during hard winters, particularly when severe weather conditions cause migration. Long-term winter food management in two populations in Germany did not pre- vent migration events. To identify migration-triggering factors we tested the potential influence of snow, temper- ature, phase of winter and development of a tradition of migration. Comparing migratory behaviour with long-term local weather records, we found that snow cover is a much stronger trigger for migration than frost and low tempera- tures. We conclude that snow heavily affects the Great Bustard\u2019s energy balance mediated not only by limited food access but also by the particular properties of its plumage. This could explain migration events despite food avail- ability and is consistent with our results concerning a tendency for females to undertake facultative winter mi- gration more than males. Available data are currently insufficient to confirm or reject the idea that Great Bustard populations develop a tradition of migratory behaviour following a previous winter migration, and we found no evidence for a decrease in the disposition of the Great Bustard to migrate during the course of winter.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Streich", "given" : "Wolf J\u00fcrgen", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Litzbarski", "given" : "Heinz", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Ludwig", "given" : "Bernd", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Ludwig", "given" : "Stefan", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "European Journal of Wildlife Research", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2006", "11", "4" ] ] }, "page" : "48-53", "title" : "What triggers facultative winter migration of Great Bustard (Otis tarda) in Central Europe?", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "52" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=be78c703-aa0f-4ae8-956d-dea9bacee44d" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Block", "given" : "Birgit", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Naturschutz un Landschaftspflege in Brandenburg", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1996" ] ] }, "note" : "irruptive, irregular`xdv \t`AZ", "page" : "76-79", "title" : "Wiederfunde von in Buckow ausgewilderten Gro\u00dftrappen [Resightings of bustards reintroduced at Buckow]", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "1/2" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=2716a731-5b16-4c87-aefa-532923ea8be2" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Block 1996, Streich et al. 2006)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Block 1996, Streich et al. 2006). Within central Europe, non-migratory movements regularly result in these birds crossing international borders.
Through satellite tracking, it has been determined that female Great Bustards breeding in the south west of the Russian Federation regularly migrate 1,100 km over the course of one week to overwinter in Ukraine ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Oparina", "given" : "Olga S", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Litzbarski", "given" : "Heinz", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Oparin", "given" : "Michail L", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vatske", "given" : "Kh", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "V", "family" : "Khrustov", "given" : "A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "\u0410\u043a\u0442\u0443\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0431\u043b\u0435\u043c\u044b \u0438\u0437\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0438 \u043e\u0445\u0440\u0430\u043d\u044b \u043f\u0442\u0438\u0446 \u0412\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0415\u0432\u0440\u043e\u043f\u044b \u0438 \u0421\u0435\u0432\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0410\u0437\u0438\u0438 [Current issues in the research and conservation of birds of Eastern Europe and Northern Asia]", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2001" ] ] }, "page" : "480-481", "publisher" : "Matbugat Iorty", "publisher-place" : "Kazan', Russia", "title" : "\u041f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0435 \u0440\u0435\u0437\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044b \u043f\u043e \u043c\u0438\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0434\u0440\u043e\u0444 \u0421\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0437\u0430\u0432\u043e\u043b\u0436\u044c\u044f, \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0441 \u043f\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0449\u044c\u044e \u0441\u043f\u0443\u0442\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043c\u0435\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0438 [First findings on the migration of great bustards of the Saratov Volga region, obtained through satellite telemetry]", "type" : "chapter" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=bfaeceb9-7c8d-4042-8041-3630d4997a32" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Oparina et al. 2001)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Oparina et al. 2001). During the breeding season, there is likely exchange between these breeding populations and those in western Kazakhstan.
Historically, Great Bustards also migrated from the south west of the Russian Federation, and possibly western Kazakhstan, along the western shore of the Caspian to overwinter in significant numbers in Azerbaijan and Iran. Now such movements are rare ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Rabiee", "given" : "Koros", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Moghaddas", "given" : "Daryoush", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Podoces", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2008" ] ] }, "page" : "112-113", "title" : "A report of great bustard Otis tarda from northern Iran", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "3" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=2f024739-6333-4b84-bbff-479f1154d8ed" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "appendix", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Patrikeev", "given" : "Michael", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "chapter-number" : "Appendix 1", "container-title" : "The Birds of Azerbaijan", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2004" ] ] }, "page" : "319-325", "publisher" : "Pensoft", "publisher-place" : "Moscow, Russia", "title" : "Birds of Azerbaijan", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=a875f58e-9c98-4aa6-a21e-4e7cc77b2beb" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Patrikeev 2004, Rabiee and Moghaddas 2008)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Patrikeev 2004, Rabiee and Moghaddas 2008).Though Syrian breeding populations have likely been extirpated, Great Bustards breeding or wintering in Iran and Turkey probably move into Iraq and the Syrian Arab Republic ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Tareh", "given" : "Hamid Amini", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Sandgrouse", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2000" ] ] }, "page" : "55-60", "title" : "The status of great bustard Otis tarda in Iran", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "22" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=86b67d56-6c31-4ed6-8c00-cfaaa1041aec" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Tareh 2000)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Tareh 2000).
Historically, Great Bustards in Kazakhstan and Tajikistan migrated southward into Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan and Pakistan to overwinter ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Gubin", "given" : "Boris Mikhailovich", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Unpublished manuscript for \u041f\u0442\u0438\u0446\u044b \u0421\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0439 \u0410\u0437\u0438\u0438 [Birds of Central Asia]", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2010" ] ] }, "page" : "861-869", "publisher-place" : "Almaty, Kazakhstan", "title" : "\u0414\u0440\u043e\u0444\u0430 Otis tarda [Great Bustard]", "type" : "chapter" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=f1b6461c-011f-4733-a5b5-96d471bbb8d8" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bostanzhoglo", "given" : "V N", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1911" ] ] }, "publisher" : "\u0422\u0438\u043f\u043e\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444\u0438\u044f \u0418\u043c\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u041c\u043e\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0443\u043d\u0438\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0442\u0430", "publisher-place" : "Moscow, Russia", "title" : "\u041e\u0440\u043d\u0438\u0442\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0430\u044f \u0444\u0430\u0443\u043d\u0430 \u0430\u0440\u0430\u043b\u043e-\u043a\u0430\u0441\u043f\u0438\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0441\u0442\u0435\u043f\u0435\u0439 [Ornithological fauna of the Aral-Caspian steppes]", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=d1e76518-a3fc-4d78-aea7-aaca484beab1" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Bostanzhoglo 1911, Gubin 2010)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Bostanzhoglo 1911, Gubin 2010). They are now rarely sighted on these wintering grounds, due to severe declines in the Great Bustard population of Kazakhstan and its extirpation in Tajikistan ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Meklenburtsev", "given" : "R N", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "V", "family" : "Mitropol'skii", "given" : "O", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Fotteler", "given" : "E R", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Tret'yakov", "given" : "G P", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Fundukchiev", "given" : "S E", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Nazarov", "given" : "A P", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Sagitov", "given" : "A K", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1990" ] ] }, "publisher" : "\u0418\u0437\u0434-\u0432\u043e \"\u0424\u0410\u041d\"", "publisher-place" : "Tashkent, USSR", "title" : "\u041f\u0442\u0438\u0442\u044b \u0423\u0437\u0431\u0435\u043a\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0430 [Birds of Uzbekistan]", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=e3aab057-6519-402a-89ca-e4906eb27b46" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Meklenburtsev et al. 1990)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Meklenburtsev et al. 1990). Today, Great Bustards wintering in south Kazakhstan irruptively migrate into Uzbekistan during harsh winter conditions ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kreitsberg-Mukhina", "given" : "E A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "\u0414\u0440\u043e\u0444\u0438\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u0442\u0438\u0446\u044b \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u0441\u043e\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d - \u0432\u044b\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a 2. [Bustards of Russia and adjacent countries - volume 2]", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2003" ] ] }, "page" : "64-75", "publisher" : "\u0418\u0437\u0434-\u0432\u043e \u0421\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0443\u043d\u0438\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0442\u0430", "publisher-place" : "Saratov, Russia", "title" : "\u0421\u043e\u0432\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0434\u0440\u043e\u0444\u0438\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0442\u0438\u0446 \u0432 \u0423\u0437\u0431\u0435\u043a\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0435 [The current status of bustard species in Uzbekistan]", "type" : "chapter" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=6d2c7b19-de79-45c6-8f7b-9013b8533d5e" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Kreitsberg-Mukhina 2003)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Kreitsberg-Mukhina 2003).
Results of satellite telemetry have revealed that females of the Asian subspecies of Great Bustard (O. t. dybowskii) breeding in north-central Mongolia take two months to migrate 2000 km into Shaanxi Province of China, making use of multiple stopovers ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1111/j.1600-048X.2013.00072.x", "ISSN" : "09088857", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kessler", "given" : "A E", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Batbayar", "given" : "N", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Natsagdorj", "given" : "T", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Batsuur\u2019", "given" : "D", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Smith", "given" : "A T", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of Avian Biology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "44", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2013", "3", "27" ] ] }, "page" : "311-320", "title" : "Satellite telemetry reveals long-distance migration in the Asian great bustard Otis tarda dybowskii", "type" : "article-journal" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=258bcf03-8530-4f43-8b4f-e4442c807ecf" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Kessler et al. 2013)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Kessler et al. 2013). These females move nomadically across a broad wintering range. Great Bustards in the south east of the Russian Federation probably make similar migrations through Mongolia into China.
Many Great Bustard leks in the south east of the Russian Federation and northern Mongolia are located close to the international border. These birds most likely intermittently cross the border for forage or to find desired habitat. It is probable that dispersal events once frequently occurred across this border.
It is worth noting that differences in migratory behaviour across the wide distribution of the Great Bustard appear to be distinct features of local populations, representing adaptations to local climate and geography. Priority should be placed on maintaining local populations of Great Bustards, as programmes involving the translocation of birds may face difficulty in this regard.
3. Threat data
3.1 Direct threats
3.1.1 Collision with overhead cabling
As large birds with low manoeuverability in flight, Great Bustards are highly vulnerable to collision with overhead cabling ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "The significance of mortality from collision with power lines for several species of birds has been evaluated by collision rates-i.e., number of birds hitting a power line/number of birds crossing a power line. We estimated mortality from power-line collisions for a wintering population of common cranes (Grus grus) and a resident population of great bustards (Otis tarda) in 2 study areas in Spain during 1992-1995. We estimated collision rates at 3.93 x 10 -5 for common cranes and at 6.34 x 10-3 for great bustards. Risk expo- sure (i.e., power-line crossings per unit of time) for common cranes was 714 times greater than for great bustards. Therefore, despite a high collision rate, minimum annual colli- sion mortality for great bustards, present the whole year, was less than for common cranes, present only 4 months-1.58 and 2.36/km/year, respectively. Collision rate, which defines the chance of collision for a certain bird species, should be combined with risk exposure and population size to evaluate the impact of collision mortality on bird populations.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Janss", "given" : "Guyonne F E", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Ferrer", "given" : "Miguel", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Wildlife Society Bulletin", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2000" ] ] }, "page" : "675-680", "title" : "Common crane and great bustard collision rate with power lines: exposure and risk", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "28" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=ef53e635-155c-4cba-b828-deda38afb999" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1017/S0959270910000432", "ISBN" : "0959270910000", "ISSN" : "0959-2709", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Raab", "given" : "Rainer", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Spakovszky", "given" : "P\u00e9ter", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Julius", "given" : "Eike", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Sch\u00fctz", "given" : "Claudia", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Schulze", "given" : "Christian H", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Bird Conservation International", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "02", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2010", "8", "11" ] ] }, "page" : "142-155", "title" : "Effects of power lines on flight behaviour of the West-Pannonian Great Bustard Otis tarda population", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "21" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=8e797e80-1a28-4c75-b9af-629c49d50220" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Janss and Ferrer 2000, Raab et al. 2010)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Janss and Ferrer 2000, Raab et al. 2010). Mortalities due to collisions are reported across the species annual range, and are expected to increase in Asia as infrastructure and industry develop. In Central Europe, international cooperation under the auspices of the Memorandum of Understanding on Middle-European Populations has resulted in the marking and burying of cables that affect neighbouring populations.
3.1.2 Hunting
Great Bustards are almost universally protected from hunting across their distribution. However, over the past fifty years, uncontrolled, illegal hunting has been a major cause of decline and even extermination of local populations of this slow-reproducing species in the central and eastern portions of its range ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Chan", "given" : "Simba", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Goroshko", "given" : "Oleg Anatol'evich", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1998" ] ] }, "publisher" : "BirdLife International", "publisher-place" : "Tokyo, Japan", "title" : "Action plan for conservation of the great bustard", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=82293484-13fc-4bbe-bbcf-bb3e6d1fbea3" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "A great bustard survey in Turkey during April 2000 located 83 birds in four different areas within the Konya Basin. Birds were found on three different display grounds. Habitat descriptions of display grounds do not suggest any exclusive relationship btween Great Bustard distribution and habitat, but human activity is substantial in all areas and there are strong indications that the suitability of display grounds is dependent on the relative intensity of human activity. Numbers may still be significant in this region, but the species is subject to heavy disurbance and the status of these populations is far from secure. Extrapolation of basin-wide numbers is difficult gien current data. Additional surves are recommende to discover new display grounds and to gain an insight into seasonal movements by great bustard. Conservation action is recommended to safeguard the Turkish Great Bustard population in the near future.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Heunks", "given" : "Cameil", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Heunks", "given" : "Eckhart", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Eken", "given" : "G\u00fcven", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kurt", "given" : "Bahtiyar", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Sandgrouse", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2001" ] ] }, "page" : "106-111", "title" : "Distribution and current status of Great Bustard Otis tarda in the Konya Basin, central Turkey", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "23" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=15c91d1a-f41d-46ce-ba28-27c132efed41" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Chan and Goroshko 1998, Heunks et al. 2001)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Chan and Goroshko 1998, Heunks et al. 2001). Poaching on both breeding and wintering grounds represents a serious threat to the survival of Great Bustard populations breeding in Turkey, Kazakhstan, the south east Russian Federation and Mongolia. The development of a more extensive paved road network in rural Asia has facilitated the travel of urban hunters to rural areas.
On migratory and wintering areas in China, Great Bustards suffer from the indiscriminate poisoning of wild birds for supply of meat to wild foods restaurants ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Shi", "given" : "Junrong", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Shaanxi Rural Newspaper", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2008", "1", "11" ] ] }, "publisher-place" : "Xi'an, China", "title" : "The poisoning of Dali wetlands birds spreads unchecked", "type" : "article-newspaper" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=9d96913b-b31c-4abf-b6db-d69a99b9b40a" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Chan", "given" : "Simba", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Goroshko", "given" : "Oleg Anatol'evich", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1998" ] ] }, "publisher" : "BirdLife International", "publisher-place" : "Tokyo, Japan", "title" : "Action plan for conservation of the great bustard", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=82293484-13fc-4bbe-bbcf-bb3e6d1fbea3" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "manualFormatting" : "(Shi 2008; Chan & Goroshko 1998, Kessler in litt.)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Chan and Goroshko 1998, Shi 2008)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Shi 2008; Chan & Goroshko 1998, Kessler in litt.). Great Bustards breeding in the south east of the Russian Federation, Mongolia and northern China use this migratory pathway.
3.1.3 Destruction of eggs and chicks
Great Bustards are ground-nesting birds with a naturally low reproductive rate. In Spain, a ten-year study found an average of 0.15 chicks produced per breeding female per year ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1046/j.1474-919X.2002.00042.x", "ISSN" : "00191019", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Morales", "given" : "Manuel B", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Alonso", "given" : "Juan Carlos", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Alonso", "given" : "Javier A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Ibis", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2002", "4", "19" ] ] }, "note" : "\"bustards have low reproductive rates and slow develop- ment, and rely disproportionately on older females to perpetuate the species (Morales et al., 2002). Females over six years of age are twice as successful at reproducing as younger birds, even then they only average 0.40 chicks per year and are unlikely to breed in consecutive year\"\ncited from Starkovich 2012", "page" : "293-300", "title" : "Annual productivity and individual female reproductive success in a great bustard Otis tarda population", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "144" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=781875b4-39c5-4801-a579-4e79287cadc5" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Morales et al. 2002)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Morales et al. 2002). Nests in natural grassland suffer from predation by corvids and canines, whose abundance may be artificially elevated around human population points. In addition, wildfires, both natural and anthropogenic, destroy nests in Asian steppe habitat. In areas used as pasture, livestock sometimes trample Great Bustard nests.
Great Bustard clutches in agricultural fields are often destroyed by agricultural machinery. In Spain, pre-hatching mortality was found to be 50% and post-hatching mortality 57%, due largely to being crushed by machinery ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "Great Bustards are still fairly abundant (5-2 nests/1000 ha) in Zamora. Overall fecundity was high (92% of adult females attempt to nest; 2\u201347 eggs/clutch; 89% egg fertility), but pre- and post-hatching mortality were also high (50% of eggs laid; 57% of nestlings hatched), due mainly to agricultural machinery but also to natural predators. Calculated annual yields per 100 adult females were: 227 eggs, 102 hatchlings, 44 fledglings. Production of 44 fledglings/y could sustain a stable adult population (mortality approx. 8%/y) if mortality of immatures is not more than 18\u201322%/y.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Ena", "given" : "Vicente", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Martinez", "given" : "Ana", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Thomas", "given" : "David H", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Ibis", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1987" ] ] }, "page" : "364-370", "title" : "Breeding success of the great bustard Otis tarda in Zamora province, Spain, in 1984", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "129" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=14690c03-6f2f-430c-b87c-a9ec4b336493" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Ena et al. 1987)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Ena et al. 1987). Nests that are not directly crushed may be predated by corvids which observe the flushed female. The provision of incentives to farmers to accommodate Great Bustard nests during key periods is carried out in some areas of Europe (Lrnt et al. 2013).
3.1.4 Indirect poisoning
Accidental poisoning of Great Bustards by agricultural chemicals and rodenticides is occasionally reported throughout the range of the species ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Puzanskii", "given" : "V N", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "\u0414\u0440\u043e\u0444\u0438\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u0442\u0438\u0446\u044b \u0420\u043e\u0441\u0441\u0438\u0438 \u0438 \u0441\u043e\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d: \u0441\u0431\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043a \u043d\u0430\u0443\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0442\u0440\u0443\u0434\u043e\u0432 [Bustard species of Russia and adjacent countries: a collection of scientific research]", "editor" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Aleshin", "given" : "A A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2000" ] ] }, "page" : "60-63", "publisher" : "\u0418\u0437\u0434-\u0432\u043e \u0421\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0443\u043d\u0438\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0442\u0430", "publisher-place" : "Saratov, Russia", "title" : "\u0420\u0430\u0441\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0434\u0440\u043e\u0444\u044b \u0432 \u0427\u0438\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043e\u0431\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438 [Distribution of the great bustard in Chita Oblast' (Russia)]", "type" : "chapter" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=1c939017-f01d-4806-a069-6af59827af10" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1134/S1062359013100063", "ISSN" : "1062-3590", "abstract" : "The results of our survey of bustards in the southern part of the Saratov Trans?Volga region over an area of 12000 sq. km in 1990\u20132010 are presented; analysis of the abundance dynamics is performed; and the factors causing it are revealed. Data on the distribution of bustards over their biotopes in the period of prem? igration roaming are studied, and the demographic and spatial structure of the population is analyzed.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Oparin", "given" : "Michail L", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Oparina", "given" : "Olga S", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kondratenkov", "given" : "I A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Mamaev", "given" : "A B", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "V", "family" : "Piskunov", "given" : "V", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Biology Bulletin", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "10", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2013", "12", "7" ] ] }, "page" : "843-853", "title" : "Factors causing long-term dynamics in the abundance of the Trans-Volga great bustard (Otis tarda L.) population", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "40" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=e047b218-200b-4a7a-808b-29950f860e13" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "manualFormatting" : "(e.g., Puzanskii 2000, Oparin et al. 2013)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Puzanskii 2000, Oparin et al. 2013)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(e.g., Puzanskii 2000, Oparin et al. 2013).
3.2 Habitat destruction
Great Bustards require large annual territories used at low levels of development. Habitat destruction, fragmentation, and agricultural intensification have been major factors in declines of western populations of Great Bustard, and are likely to become greater factors in eastern populations as well.
3.2.1 Declining quality of breeding habitat
Timing of use of agricultural machinery, and the intensification of agricultural production are major habitat-quality threats on breeding grounds, as described in 3.1.3 Destruction of eggs and chicks and 3.3.1 Agricultural chemical use. For bustards inhabiting natural grasslands, overgrazing decreases quality of forage and increases the risk of the trampling of nests.
Great Bustards are a lekking species, which perform breeding displays and nest at traditional lek sites. Due to strong philopatry ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "We examined the seasonal movements of wing-tagged and radio-marked adult female Great Bustards Otis tarda in a population in northwestern Spain. Four different movement patterns were found: females that migrated between breeding and wintering areas (20%), females that only left their year-round home range area to mate (32%), females that migrated from a wintering-mating area to a nesting-summering area (16%), and females that stayed all year round within a relatively small home range area (32%). All females displayed fidelity to their nesting and wintering areas, and most also showed fidelity to their leks. Migration patterns were not affected either in timing or distance by breeding success. The maximum distance between natal and dispersal locations during their first year of life was significantly higher in migratory females than in sedentary ones. These patterns explained the seasonal variations in population numbers observed in the study area. Surveys showed that the number of females increased from 600\u2013700 breeding birds, with 1,000\u20131,100 birds present from October to March.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Alonso", "given" : "Juan Carlos", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Morales", "given" : "Manuel B", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Alonso", "given" : "Javier A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Condor", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2000" ] ] }, "note" : "Use site where female was first seen with their chicks as a proxy for nest sites\n \n2km distance between nesting sites year to year\n \nFEMALES MATING AT DISTANT LEK", "page" : "127-136", "title" : "Partial migration, and lek and nesting area fidelity in female great bustards", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "102" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=a8f9fe5c-f7ea-469b-ae33-6efea3aea9e8" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "We studied dispersal and seasonal movements of Great Bustards marked as young in Villaf\u00e1fila, NW Spain, between 1983 and 1990. This study documented male-biased dispersal in a sexually dimorphic, lekking species; one of the very few documented examples outside the Anatidae. Females nested outside the display area after visiting leks for mating. Males abandoned breeding activities after mating and dispersed during summer to moult. Young stayed with hens until a new breeding cycle was initiated in the next spring. Males dispersed significantly earlier and further from natal sites than females. Home ranges of males were significantly larger during their first two years of life than later, and those of females were significantly smaller than those of males. Average age of first lek attendance was 2.7 yr for males and 1.9 yr for females. Females attended leks closer to natal sites than males, and adult males attended the same leks year after year. Age of first successful breeding was 4-5 yr in females. These results support the hypothesis that sex-biased dispersal is determined by the different value of philopatry for the two sexes.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Alonso", "given" : "Juan Carlos", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Alonso", "given" : "Javier A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Ornis Scandinavica", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1992" ] ] }, "page" : "81-88", "title" : "Male-biased dispersal in the great bustard Otis tarda", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "23" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=322150af-2330-427f-b060-8146db6285ae" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Alonso and Alonso 1992, Alonso et al. 2000)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Alonso and Alonso 1992, Alonso et al. 2000), males may continue to display and females to nest at a lek site despite conversion to inappropriate habitat, with resultant high mortality and/or low breeding success that may drive the local population to extinction.
3.2.2 Declining quality of migratory stopovers and wintering areas
Eastern European and Asian populations of Great Bustard, which perform long-distance movements, require large areas of open grassland or agricultural land for foraging during migration and wintering. Increasing human population density and activity decrease the quality of habitat through disturbance. Installation of overhead cabling creates risk of fatal collisions.
3.2.3 Disturbance
Great Bustards are exceptionally wary and sensitive to human disturbance, exhibiting fleeing distances from 500 to 1,500 metres ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Gewalt", "given" : "Wolfgang", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1959" ] ] }, "page" : "127 pp", "publisher" : "Die neue Brehm-B\u00fccherei", "publisher-place" : "Wittenberg Lutherstadt, Germany", "title" : "Die Gro\u00dftrappe [Great bustard]", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=e1a61f03-0cc0-42b2-a696-411861bc8eb0" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Gewalt 1959)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Gewalt 1959). This trait is exaggerated in areas where they are persecuted by humans. Unsuitable levels of even benign human activity can cause Great Bustards to abandon otherwise suitable habitat.
3.3 Indirect threats
3.3.1 Agricultural chemical use
The use of pesticides and herbicides on agricultural fields where Great Bustards nest reduces the food base necessary for growth of Great Bustard chicks ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "Capsule Arthropods are the most important diet component of Great Bustards Otis tarda in the first months of life. Aims \u0422\u043e determine the diet composition of young Great Bustards in Spain. Methods The diet was estimated \u042c\u0443 stomach content analysis (n = 49). Results Stomach contents' dry weight consisted of 33% arthropods, 30% green plant material and 23% seeds. Gastroliths were only found in summer and autumn. The diet composition changed significantly between seasons. ln summer, diet consisted mainly of arthropods (50%), with green plant material being the main component in winter (56%). Volume of stomach contents and mean size of ingested arthropods were higher in males than in females. Diet composition did not differ between sexes. ln summer, ground- dwelling and plant-visiting arthropods such as Mantidae, Tenebrionidae and caterpillars were the most abundant. ln winter, weeds, legumes and cultivated seeds were more frequent than arthropods. Cereal plants were the least consumed in all seasons, although Barley and Wheat seeds played an important role during winter and autumn. Conclusion The results highlight the importance of arthropods and weeds as \u0430 fundamental component of the diet of young Great Bustards. Because previous studies show that arthropods and weeds are usually more abundant in extensive farming, we recommend the implementation of agri-environmental measures in", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bravo", "given" : "Carolina", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Ponce", "given" : "Carlos", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Palac\u00edn", "given" : "Carlos A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Alonso", "given" : "Juan Carlos", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Bird Study", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2013" ] ] }, "page" : "243-251", "title" : "Diet of young great bustards Otis tarda in Spain: sexual and seasonal differences", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "59" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=932fce89-9016-4466-8b7c-7745126bc080" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Bravo et al. 2013)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Bravo et al. 2013). Male chicks are particularly vulnerable to limited food supply, as they have higher growth rates due to the species high degree of sexual dimorphism ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1111/j.2007.0908-8857.03811.x", "ISSN" : "09088857", "abstract" : "We explored sex-biased mortality patterns in a species showing the most extreme sexual dimorphism among birds, the great bustard Otis tarda. Between 1991 and 2005 we studied juvenile and immature survival in a sample of 361 great bustards radio-tagged at two different populations in Spain, Villafa \u00b4fila and Madrid. Mortality decreased with age, from high rates during the first year (0.70), to 0.10 in the second year. Using the known-fate model in program MARK we found that monthly survival increased throughout the first year. Offspring showing higher body mass at marking, i.e. those hatched earlier in the season and those with better body condition, survived in higher proportion. This was probably related to the earlier breeding dates of more experienced mothers, as well as to the observed decrease in food availability as the season progresses. Monthly survival estimates were higher in females than in males, which suggests that juvenile males are more vulnerable to reduced food availability and other factors due to their much faster growth rates. The proportion of non-natural deaths increased with age, and was higher in the Madrid population, where illegal hunting and collision with powerlines showed a high incidence. The male-biased mortality found in young birds in this study explains the female-biased population sex ratios observed in great bustard populations. The different degrees of incidence of human-induced causes of mortality found between both populations studied suggest that such differences may contribute to the variation observed in the adult sex ratio among populations.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Mart\u00edn", "given" : "Carlos A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Alonso", "given" : "Juan Carlos", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Alonso", "given" : "Javier A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Palac\u00edn", "given" : "Carlos A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Maga\u00f1a", "given" : "Marina", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Mart\u00edn", "given" : "Beatriz", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of Avian Biology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2007", "5", "6" ] ] }, "note" : "92% adult survival rates!!", "page" : "335-346", "title" : "Sex-biased juvenile survival in a bird with extreme size dimorphism, the great bustard Otis tarda", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "38" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=664cffc7-6d7e-4da5-a53d-a320218cacc9" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Mart\u00edn et al. 2007)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Martn et al. 2007).
Rates of chemical application are likely to increase in Eastern Europe and Asia. Yet, Great Bustard chicks in these areas are under greater pressure for rapid growth, as the more severe climate in these areas requires that nesting begin later in spring, and also demands that chicks be prepared for long-distance migration in the fall, including the crossing of international borders ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1111/j.1600-048X.2013.00072.x", "ISSN" : "09088857", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kessler", "given" : "A E", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Batbayar", "given" : "N", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Natsagdorj", "given" : "T", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Batsuur\u2019", "given" : "D", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Smith", "given" : "A T", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Journal of Avian Biology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "44", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2013", "3", "27" ] ] }, "page" : "311-320", "title" : "Satellite telemetry reveals long-distance migration in the Asian great bustard Otis tarda dybowskii", "type" : "article-journal" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=258bcf03-8530-4f43-8b4f-e4442c807ecf" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Kessler et al. 2013)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Kessler et al. 2013).
3.3.2 Loss of genetic diversity
Increasing isolation of remnant Great Bustard leks, especially in Morocco and the Asian portion of the species distribution, has a negative impact on genetic diversity ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1007/s10592-008-9605-2", "abstract" : "We studied the genetic diversity of great bus- tards (Otis tarda) in Iberia and Morocco, the main stronghold of this globally endangered species. Samples were collected from 327 individuals covering most of the distribution range within the study area. Sequence variation in a 657 bp fragment of the mtDNA control region revealed 20 variable sites defining 22 haplotypes, two of them exclusive to Morocco. Genetic diversity showed marked regional differences (p = 0\u20130.53, h = 0\u20130.89). Multidi- mensional scaling analysis based on FST values showed a clear division between Morocco and the Iberian Peninsula, with no evidence of current gene flow between them. Our results suggest that Morocco, where few matrilines have persisted to present, was colonized from Iberia thousands of years ago. Last century reports suggest dispersal through Gibraltar, when the species was more abundant at both sides of the Strait but later population declines and the Strait\u2019s barrier effect have favoured current genetic isolation. Within Iberia, only the most peripheral populations (Navarra, Arago \u00b4n and Andalusia) differed significantly from the main ones in central Spain. The first two showed extremely low genetic diversity and are probably threatened by inbreeding depression. Diversity was higher in Andalusia, where three exclusive haplotypes were found, suggesting some degree of isolation from other populations. Andalusia and Morocco could be regarded as separate management units which hold a significant pro- portion of the current genetic diversity and thus deserve urgent conservation measures.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Alonso", "given" : "Juan Carlos", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Mart\u00edn", "given" : "Carlos A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Alonso", "given" : "Javier A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Palac\u00edn", "given" : "Carlos A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Maga\u00f1a", "given" : "Marina", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lieckfeldt", "given" : "Dietmar", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Pitra", "given" : "Christian", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Conservation Genetics", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2009" ] ] }, "page" : "379-390", "title" : "Genetic diversity of the great bustard in Iberia and Morocco: risks from current population fragmentation", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "10" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=3e285c09-46fc-4e1c-a857-fae0cd9845e3" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "Great bustards Otis tarda dybowskii populations are declining in China. To determine reasons for this decline and to assist conservation, the genetic diversity of great bustards was analyzed by microsatellite DNA markers. Three microsatellites from great bustard O. t. tarda and 13 from Houbara bustard Chlamydotis undulate were detected in 47 great bustards O. t. dybowskii. Eight microsatellite were polymorphic, 3 of which were low polymorphic and the remaining 5 highly polymorphic. The heterozygosity of the 8 loci ranged from 0.0435 to 1.0000, averaging 0.6595 per locus, polymophism Information Contant from 0.0416 to 0.8520, averaging 0.5497 per locus, and the effective number from 1.04 to 7.46, 3.61 alleles per locus on average. The observed genotype frequencies at 4 loci were consistent with Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium (HWE) and the remaining 4 loci were significantly deviated from HWE. The results show that genetic diversity of O.t.dybowskii is lower than O.t.tarda. This may be caused by the smaller population size, genetic bottleneck in history\uff0cand fragmentated or concentrated geographical distribution", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Tian", "given" : "Xiu-Hua", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Liu", "given" : "Zhu", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bai", "given" : "Su-Ying", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Acta Zoologica Sinica", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2006" ] ] }, "note" : " From Duplicate 1 ( Microsatellite analysis of genetic diversity of the great bustard Otis tarda dybowskii - Tian, Xiu-Hua; Liu, Zhu; Bai, Su-Ying )\n \n From Duplicate 2 ( Microsatellite analysis of genetic diversity of the great bustard Otis tarda dybowskii - Tian, Xiu-Hua; Liu, Zhu; Bai, Su-Ying )\n \n \n \n \n \n From Duplicate 2 ( Microsatellite analysis of genetic diversity of the great bustard Otis tarda dybowskii - Tian, Xiu-Hua; Liu, Zhu; Bai, Su-Ying; Xiu-Hua, Tian; Zhu, Liu; Su-Ying, Bai )\n \n From Duplicate 1 ( Microsatellite analysis of genetic diversity of the great bustard Otis tarda dybowskii - Xiu-Hua, Tian; Zhu, Liu; Su-Ying, Bai )\n \n \n \n From Duplicate 2 ( Microsatellite analysis of genetic diversity of the great bustard Otis tarda dybowskii - Tian, Xiu-Hua; Liu, Zhu; Bai, Su-Ying )\n \n From Duplicate 2 ( Microsatellite analysis of genetic diversity of the great bustard Otis tarda dybowskii - Tian, Xiu-Hua; Liu, Zhu; Bai, Su-Ying )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n ", "page" : "569-574", "title" : "Microsatellite analysis of genetic diversity of the great bustard Otis tarda dybowskii", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "52" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=22c9ae81-95fd-4552-b38f-cc19a79f5819" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Tian et al. 2006, Alonso et al. 2009a)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Tian et al. 2006, Alonso et al. 2009a). There is concern about loss of unique genetic characteristics of the Asian subspecies, which numbers less than 2,000 individuals ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.5122/cbirds.2010.0007", "abstract" : "The Great Bustard (Otis tarda) world population is estimated to be 44100\u201357000 indi- viduals in 2010, of which about 57\u201370% occur in Spain, 15\u201325% in European Russia, 4\u201310% in China, Mongolia and south-eastern Russia, 3\u20134% in Portugal, 3% in Hungary, 1\u20132% in Turkey, and smaller numbers in ten other countries. The reliability of current censuses and estimates may be described as high for a large fraction of the world population (67\u201375%), and low for the remaining 25\u201333% (including Russia, Mongolia, China, Turkey, Ukraine, Iran and Kazakhstan). In spite of continued declines reported for some countries (e.g., Turkey, Iran, China), the present survey suggests that total numbers have not significantly decreased worldwide during the last decade, as opposed to the globally declining trend currently assumed. This is due to a large fraction of the world total living in countries whose overall surveys are apparently stable (e.g., Spain, Portugal), after a noticeable recovery during the last few decades once the hunting ban was established. Only 6\u201310% of the world total is apparently still decreasing, mostly due to agricultural intensification, other causes of habitat degradation, and locally, also illegal hunting and collision with power lines. A small fraction of the world population (3\u20134%), is clearly (Germany, Austria) or apparently (Hungary) increasing, due to management and conservation measures. Finally, 19\u201322% of the world total has an uncertain status, due to inaccurate current or past censuses which prevent establishing reliable population trends. We recommend 1) keeping conservation efforts and the species\u2019 protection status worldwide, and 2) carrying out urgently nationwide surveys in countries with low quality estimates, in order to confirm world numbers and trends.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Alonso", "given" : "Juan Carlos", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Palac\u00edn", "given" : "Carlos A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Chinese Birds", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2010" ] ] }, "page" : "141-147", "title" : "The world status and population trends of the great bustard (Otis tarda): 2010 update", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "1" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=21d833c2-12b9-47ce-9f9b-ada4ab6eb6de" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Alonso and Palac\u00edn 2010)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Alonso and Palacn 2010).
3.3.3 Climate change
As large, heavy birds, male Great Bustards are sensitive to high temperatures ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1007/s00265-009-0783-9", "abstract" : "Radio tracking of 142 males captured at 44 leks in Spain showed that partial migration of great bustard males in summer is a widespread behaviour in many Iberian populations, in contrast to their previously assumed sedentariness. A variable number of males migrated immediately after mating to summering areas with lower temperatures and human population densities and more trees and rainfall levels than the breeding sites. Birds selected there fields with trees and sunflower crops which provided shade during the hottest midday hours and protective cover against predators. Males breeding in areas with higher July temperatures had a higher tendency to migrate, and males from hotter, southern regions migrated longer distances than those from milder, northern regions and showed a preferred northward direction. These results confirmed various predictions from the weather sensitivity hypothesis, suggesting that summer migration of great bustard males represents primarily an adaptation to escape the summer heat of most breeding areas in central and southern Iberia. The hypothesis that males migrated to benefit from higher food availability at the summering areas could not be rejected by our results. Finally, migrating males also gained more tranquillity during the post- breeding moult due to the lower human population density at the summering areas. Summer migration of Iberian great bustard males may thus be interpreted as a form of behavioural thermoregulation which has not been described for other Palaearctic populations of this species or for other bird species breeding in temperate latitudes.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Alonso", "given" : "Juan Carlos", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Palac\u00edn", "given" : "Carlos A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Alonso", "given" : "Javier A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Mart\u00edn", "given" : "Carlos A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2009" ] ] }, "note" : "remarkable fidelity to post-breeding areas", "page" : "1705-1715", "title" : "Post-breeding migration in male great bustards: low tolerance of the heaviest Palaearctic bird to summer heat", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "63" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=ef63c88c-7e7e-4f86-a0fb-e5f26958de09" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Alonso et al. 2009b)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Alonso et al. 2009b). Climate simulations suggest that much of the Great Bustards current range in Europe will become unsuitable in the late 21st century. ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "A comprehensive exploration of the relationships between the distributions of birds breeding in Europe and the present climate, and how future climatic change may alter each species\u2019 potential breeding distribution. Results are presented in detail for 431 species; brief accounts are also included for a further 48 native and 16 introduced species. The contents of the volume include: outline accounts of climate and vegetation patterns in Europe; a biogeographic analysis of the breeding birds of Europe; a review of the background to studies of the relationships between species\u2019 distributions and climate; a discussion of the methods used in such studies; a summary of how European climate is projected to change by the end of the present century; a discussion of how species respond to climatic changes; for each of 431 species, a brief account of their distribution and ecology, maps of their recent observed and modelled geographical distribution, and of their potential future distribution in the late 21st century, a graphical representation of the location in climate space of the species\u2019 distribution and text describing the possible effects of climate change on the species; a synthesis and discussion of the results for the ensemble of 431 species examined; and a concluding section exploring the implications of these results, especially with respect to the conservation of birds in Europe. The many maps and diagrams this volume contains, as well as the succinct accounts of the distribution and ecology of the 431 species examined in detail, offer much that will be valued by the amateur and professional ornithologist alike. The introductory, review and synthetic material will also be of interest to a wider range of biologists and conservation scientists, as well as to those in government and non-government organisations addressing issues relating to biodiversity conservation, both in Europe and beyond.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Huntley", "given" : "Brian", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Green", "given" : "Rhys E", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Collingham", "given" : "Yvonne C", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Willis", "given" : "Stephen G", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "A climatic atlas of European breeding birds", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2007" ] ] }, "publisher" : "Durham University, The RSPB and Lynx Edicions", "publisher-place" : "Barcelona, Spain", "title" : "A climatic atlas of European breeding birds", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=80fce3b1-5e10-4b1a-8d7e-8c676e87d9b2" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "manualFormatting" : "Huntley et al. (2007)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Huntley et al. 2007)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }Huntley et al. (2007) find that suitable habitat will shift out of Western Europe into areas of Eastern Europe and Sweden which the species does not currently inhabit. ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Osborne", "given" : "Patrick E", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Gra\u00f1a", "given" : "L S", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Leit\u00e3o", "given" : "Pedro J", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Nagy", "given" : "Szabolcs", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Scientific Symposium on the Conservation of the Great Bustard in Middle Europe", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2008" ] ] }, "publisher-place" : "Feodosia, Ukraine, Ukraine", "title" : "Modelling the distribution of great bustards and the potential challenges of climate change", "type" : "paper-conference" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=ac8c2b6a-f5a4-4ad7-85da-75999dbd91e2" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "manualFormatting" : "Osborne et al. (2008)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Osborne et al. 2008)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }Osborne et al. (2008) find that suitable habitat will persist in northwest Spain and Turkey, but additionally shift into France, Poland, and the Baltic states, where the Great Bustard is not currently found. It is uncertain how this highly philopatric species will adjust to changes in climate.
3.4 Threats connected especially with migrations and movements
Partial migrations performed in Western Europe, facultative irruptions in Central Europe, and regular migrations performed from Turkey eastward all expose Great Bustards to threats over a large spatial scale, including collision with overhead cabling, hunting, poisoning and habitat degradation ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "The article is based on the results of surveys carried out throughout the territory of Steppe Crimea and the de- tailed counts of birds along power lines going across the Kerch peninsula in 2001\u20132002 and in 2005\u20132006, in the Tarkhankut upland in 2006\u20132007 as well. The studies have shown that power lines are hazardous to birds during migrations and wintering, especially in the areas of their congestions. Numerous species generally suffer from collision with wires. And there are large birds in many cases. Poor visibility is the main reason of increasing in numbers of bird collisions Many birds used electric poles and wires as a nesting and roosting sites as well as for hunting, especially in open landscapes. The results obtained allow to claim that the power lines in the high voltage range have a positive impact to some rare species as well. There are birds of prey, which used which used artificial constructions instead the destroyed natural wood vegetation in open landscapes that predominate in Steppe Crimea", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Andryushchenko", "given" : "Yurii A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Popenko", "given" : "V M", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "\u041f\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0430\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0445\u0438\u0449\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438 \u0438 \u0438\u0445 \u043e\u0445\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0430 [Raptors and their conservation]", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2012" ] ] }, "page" : "34-41", "title" : "Birds and power lines in steppe Crimea: positive and negative impacts", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "24" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=0f638837-58a1-43f3-befc-1ef849b458fb" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "ISSN" : "1026-3470", "PMID" : "14994471", "abstract" : "We studied the abundance, spatial structure, and democratic parameters of the Trans-Volga population of great bustard as well as this species connection to the habitats during premigratory movements. The data were obtained by monitoring a test area of 1,200,000 hectares in 1998-2000. Time-related changes in the structure of great bustard habitats in Saratov Trans-Volga Region during the 20th century are described and the mechanisms underlying the changes in this species connection to the habitats under the influence of anthropogenic factors are proposed.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Oparin", "given" : "Michail L", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kondratenkov", "given" : "I A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Oparina", "given" : "Olga S", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Biology Bulletin", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "6", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2003" ] ] }, "note" : "great bustard prefers agriculture", "page" : "562-569", "title" : "Abundance of Trans-Volga population of the great bustard (Otis tarda L.)", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "30" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=774ae8db-00f1-420e-bc47-84417cca1c36" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-3", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Yan", "given" : "A H", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Chinese Journal of Zoology", "id" : "ITEM-3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1982" ] ] }, "page" : "37-39", "title" : "The wintering ecology and hunting of great bustard", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "1" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=7bcab00a-e661-44f4-96b3-3c224de7a447" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-4", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Chan", "given" : "Simba", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Goroshko", "given" : "Oleg Anatol'evich", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-4", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1998" ] ] }, "publisher" : "BirdLife International", "publisher-place" : "Tokyo, Japan", "title" : "Action plan for conservation of the great bustard", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=82293484-13fc-4bbe-bbcf-bb3e6d1fbea3" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Yan 1982, Chan and Goroshko 1998, Oparin et al. 2003, Andryushchenko and Popenko 2012)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Yan 1982, Chan and Goroshko 1998, Oparin et al. 2003, Andryushchenko and Popenko 2012). In many regions, non-migratory patterns of movement also result in the crossing of international borders, exposing these birds to different conditions and threats.
The prolonged migration performed by the Asian subspecies, which involves use of multiple stopovers, crossing of international borders, and nomadic behaviour on wintering grounds, puts its entire population at particular risk. In a tagged cohort of female Asian Great Bustards, all observed mortalities have occurred on the migration pathway and wintering grounds (Kessler, unpublished data). Further, climate change is expanding the extent of the Gobi Desert ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.earscirev.2008.02.001", "ISSN" : "00128252", "abstract" : "Arid and semiarid China have experienced multiple arid phases throughout the Quaternary, and over the past five decades, there have been several periods with relatively high or low rates of desertification and rehabilitation. The causes of these changes and their historical trends have been debated by scientists because of their potentially huge significance for China, as well as for the global ecology and food supply. This paper reviews recent studies of desertification in different regions of arid and semiarid China. In general, the results of systematic monitoring, and analyses of the causes of desertification and the contemporaneous human impacts, suggest that desertification in China has been primarily caused by climate change, and particularly by strong wind regimes (with high sand transport potential) accompanied by decreased spring precipitation. Unfortunately, although numerous scientists have claimed that desertification in China is primarily due to human impacts; there is surprisingly little unassailable evidence to support this claim. The review presented in this paper show that desertification in China is likely to be controlled by climate change and geomorphological processes, even though human impacts have undeniably exacerbated their effects. Our arguments for both climate change and human activity as factors responsible for the observed changes in desertification rely primarily on inferences based on correlations between trends, thus future research must seek stronger and more direct evidence for the causal relationships that we have proposed as possibilities. This improved information is essential to provide a firm basis for future policy decisions on how best to combat desertification.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Wang", "given" : "Xunming", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Chen", "given" : "Fahu", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hasi", "given" : "Eerdun", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Li", "given" : "Jinchang", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Earth-Science Reviews", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "3-4", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2008", "6" ] ] }, "note" : "Climate change is mostly to blame for recent desertification in China", "page" : "188-206", "title" : "Desertification in China: an assessment", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "88" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=70727609-0b0c-4268-ba95-e382c7b816fc" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Wang et al. 2008)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Wang et al. 2008), which is a obstacle for the migration of these Great Bustards.
In both facultative and regular long-distance migrating populations of Great Bustard, there appears to be a tendency for females to migrate more often or further than males. Since Great Bustards are a lekking species in which females are solely responsible for incubation and rearing of chicks, increased mortality of females on the migration pathway has the potential to have a great impact on population growth.
High levels of mortality were previously encountered during irruptive migration events in Central Europe. With the listing of these middle-European populations on Appendix I, a system of communication was developed between Range States hosting breeding populations and Range States which periodically receive irruptive migrants. This allows these southern states to better ensure appropriate conditions for the bustards survival.
Listing of the entire population of Great Bustard under Appendix I could promote growth in currently stable populations in the Iberian Peninsula, while slowing alarming declines in populations outside of Europe. Raising the international conservation profile of this species also has potential to affect conservation action in Range States which are non-signatories. Improvement in migratory breeding populations has the potential to restore wintering populations that have disappeared from the Middle East, Caucasus and Central Asian countries over the past century.
3.5 National and international utilization
In the past, international trade in Great Bustard feathers resulted in the listing of this species on Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This trade has largely been halted.
As described above in 3.1.2 Hunting, Great Bustards are pursued particularly in Eastern Europe, the Middle East, and Asia. Reasons for hunting include sport, meat for personal use or trade, and curiosity about this rare bird as it is sighted on irregular stopovers. An international component to this persecution exists in the form of sport hunters arriving to Asian Range States from Western Europe and the Arabian Peninsula to pursue this species.
4. Protection status and needs
4.1 National protection status
The Great Bustard is red-listed across most of its range, at levels from Vulnerable to Extinct.
4.2 International protection status
The Great Bustard is considered as Vulnerable in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. The IUCN Bustard Specialist Group unanimously endorses this proposal for listing global populations of Great Bustard on CMS Appendix I.
4.2.1 Coherence with CITES
The Great Bustard is listed on Appendix II of CITES. International trade is controlled across the species range. This listing has been successful in largely halting international trade in the species feathers, which were once used for fly fishing.
Factors gravely threatening populations of Great Bustard, which are not related to international trade, are detailed above in Section 3. These include collisions with overhead cabling, hunting and destruction of eggs, chicks, and habitat degradation and loss. Listing of the entire population of Great Bustard under Appendix I would be an appropriate mechanism to coordinate knowledge-sharing and international efforts to reduce these threats.
4.2.2 Coherence with the Birds Directive
The Great Bustard is listed on Annex I of the European Unions Birds Directive. The Directive has supported the designation of protected areas, including 141 Special Protection Areas that hold the Great Bustard as a designation feature. The Directive also protects Great Bustards through a ban on hunting. LIFE projects providing 1 0 m i l l i o n o v e r t h e l a s t d e c a d e h a v e f o c u s e d o n c o n s e r v a t i o n w o r k f o r t h e s p e c i e s .
L i s t i n g t h e g l o b a l p o p u l a t i o n o f G r e a t B u s t a r d s o n A p p e n d i x I o f C M S i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e E U B i r d s D i r e c t i v e . W i t h i n E u r o p e , t h i s l i s t i n g w i l l f u r t h e r f a c i l i t a t e p r o t e c tion and restoration of habitat and help to prevent, remove or minimize the adverse effects of activities or obstacles that seriously impede or prevent the migration of the species.
Importantly, this listing will also provide a mechanism for sharing of knowledge about best practices for protection of Great Bustards (e.g., methods of marking overhead cabling; the development of cooperative agreements with farmers to ensure compatibility of the agricultural schedule with Great Bustard breeding) developed via EU projects with non-EU Range States.
4.2.3 Coherence with CMS
Currently, the global population of Great Bustard is listed on Appendix II of the CMS.
Some populations of Great Bustard are protected on Appendix I through a Memorandum of Understanding. Range States are convened for formal meetings and have developed an international species action plan ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Nagy", "given" : "Szabolcs", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2009" ] ] }, "note" : " From Duplicate 2 ( International single species action plan for the Western Palearctic population of great bustard, Otis tarda tarda - Nagy, Szabolcs )\n \n \n \n ", "publisher-place" : "Szarvas, Hungary", "title" : "International single species action plan for the Western Palearctic population of great bustard, Otis tarda tarda", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=f6fecf87-530c-46e2-8c4f-fe6e1ca75a35" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Nagy 2009)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Nagy 2009). Joint action includes coordinated census programmes and cooperation to eliminate threats to neighbouring populations (e.g., burying overhead cables).
Yet, the condition of populations of Great Bustard breeding in the Middle East, Central and East Asia, as well as North Africa, is considerably worse than that in middle Europe. Central Asia now holds only 300 individuals ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Mityaev", "given" : "Ivan Dmitrievich", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Yashchenko", "given" : "Rman Vasil'evich", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "\u041a\u0440\u0430\u0441\u043d\u0430\u044f \u043a\u043d\u0438\u0433\u0430 \u041a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u0445\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0430 [Red list of Kazakhstan]", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2006" ] ] }, "publisher" : "Museum of Natural History", "publisher-place" : "Almaty, Kazakhstan", "title" : "Red Book of Kazakhstan", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=4b9a6461-ad49-40d8-840c-aec1b26c1af2" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Mityaev and Yashchenko 2006)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Mityaev and Yashchenko 2006), as does Turkey ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Karaka\u015f", "given" : "Recep", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Akarsu", "given" : "Ferdi", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Zooloogy in the Middle East", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2009" ] ] }, "page" : "25-34", "title" : "Recent status and distribution of the Great Bustard, Otis tarda, in Turkey", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "48" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=5b18a014-d962-4b9c-9085-2cc9234c3769" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Karaka\u015f and Akarsu 2009)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" } ( K a r a k a _ a n d A k a r s u 2 0 0 9 ) . E a s t e r n A s i a n p o p u l a t i o n s , w h i c h c o m p r i s e a d i s t i n c t s u b s p e c i e s , c o n t a i n a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 , 0 0 0 i n d i v i d u a l s A D D I N C S L _ C I T A T I O N { " c i t a t i o n I t e m s " : [ { " i d " : " I T E M - 1 " , " i t e m D a t a " : { " D O I " : " 1 0 . 5 1 2 2 / c b i r d s . 2 0 1 0 . 0 0 0 7 " , " a b s t r a c t " : "The Great Bustard (Otis tarda) world population is estimated to be 44100\u201357000 indi- viduals in 2010, of which about 57\u201370% occur in Spain, 15\u201325% in European Russia, 4\u201310% in China, Mongolia and south-eastern Russia, 3\u20134% in Portugal, 3% in Hungary, 1\u20132% in Turkey, and smaller numbers in ten other countries. The reliability of current censuses and estimates may be described as high for a large fraction of the world population (67\u201375%), and low for the remaining 25\u201333% (including Russia, Mongolia, China, Turkey, Ukraine, Iran and Kazakhstan). In spite of continued declines reported for some countries (e.g., Turkey, Iran, China), the present survey suggests that total numbers have not significantly decreased worldwide during the last decade, as opposed to the globally declining trend currently assumed. This is due to a large fraction of the world total living in countries whose overall surveys are apparently stable (e.g., Spain, Portugal), after a noticeable recovery during the last few decades once the hunting ban was established. Only 6\u201310% of the world total is apparently still decreasing, mostly due to agricultural intensification, other causes of habitat degradation, and locally, also illegal hunting and collision with power lines. A small fraction of the world population (3\u20134%), is clearly (Germany, Austria) or apparently (Hungary) increasing, due to management and conservation measures. Finally, 19\u201322% of the world total has an uncertain status, due to inaccurate current or past censuses which prevent establishing reliable population trends. We recommend 1) keeping conservation efforts and the species\u2019 protection status worldwide, and 2) carrying out urgently nationwide surveys in countries with low quality estimates, in order to confirm world numbers and trends.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Alonso", "given" : "Juan Carlos", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Palac\u00edn", "given" : "Carlos A", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Chinese Birds", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2010" ] ] }, "page" : "141-147", "title" : "The world status and population trends of the great bustard (Otis tarda): 2010 update", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "1" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=21d833c2-12b9-47ce-9f9b-ada4ab6eb6de" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Alonso and Palac\u00edn 2010)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Alonso and Palacn 2010). About 100 individuals remain in Morocco ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "The Moroccan population of Great Bustard Otis tarda was surveyed in the four years 1998\u20132001. Highest numbers were counted in December 1998 (21 males, 62\u201365 females, four \ufb01rst-year males: total c. 90) and March 2001 (15 males, 60\u201366 females, four \ufb01rst-year males: total 75\u201381). Combining enquiry results from local people with these data, the population size for spring is estimated at 92\u2013111 individuals, and 117\u2013133 for winter. Reproduction is con\ufb01rmed. Threats to the population include illegal hunting, habitat loss through agricultural intensi\ufb01cation (irrigation, use of pesticides) and infrastructural changes (construction of a motorway and a powerplant), disturbance, and accidents at powerlines and antennas. Several conservation measures are suggested: cease hunting; maximize the attention given to display sites; encourage villagers to carry out \u2018\u2018Great Bustard-friendly\u2019\u2019 land use and adapt animal stocks to the carrying capacity of their regions; clarify the situation of genetic exchange between Spanish and Moroccan populations; study movements between the Moroccan sites; monitor the size and trends of the most important subpopulations; and conduct education campaigns in schools and increase public awareness among adults.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hellmich", "given" : "Joachim", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Idaghdour", "given" : "Youssef", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Bird Conservation International", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2002" ] ] }, "page" : "19-33", "title" : "The great bustard Otis tarda populations in Morocco 1998-2001", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "12" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=26b9ecbc-3f83-42ec-8f96-51e21276dcce" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Hellmich and Idaghdour 2002)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Hellmich and Idaghdour 2002). Threats to these populations are increasing with industrial and agricultural development, and expansion of the human population. As populations from portions of the range within and east of Turkey are regular, long-distance migrants, the extirpation of local breeding populations also means reductions or elimination of stopover or wintering populations in adjacent countries. Listing of the entire species of Great Bustard under Appendix I would help to coordinate protection of these populations.
The Central Asian Flyway Action Plan provides protection to migratory waterbirds across their annual ranges in Central Asia (Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species 2005). Listing of the entire species of Great Bustard under Appendix I would provide similar protection for this dryland migrant in this region.
4.3 Additional protection needs
4.3.1 Direct protection
Collisions with cabling: Key Great Bustard movement corridors, including stretches of cabling causing mortality should be identified. Marking of overhead cabling, or ideally, burying or re-routing of cables from known sensitive areas, should be undertaken to reduce mortality ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1017/S0959270911000463", "ISSN" : "0959-2709", "abstract" : "Collisions with power lines represent an important mortality factor for Great Bustards Otis tarda throughout the distribution range of the species. This study evaluates the success of two con- servationmeasures implemented in the West-Pannonian distribution range to reduce the number of power line collision casualties: (1) extensive underground cabling of 43.1 km power lines, and (2)marking of 89.7 km power lines starting in 2005 and 2006, respectively. The mortality rate of Great Bustards in our study area (covering 686.5 km2) decreased significantly between 2002 and 2011, predominantly caused by reduced mortality due to power line collisions. Univariate tests indicate that underground cabling and power line marking significantly decreased power line collision casualties. Generalised linear models (GLMs) highlighted the prominent effect of un- derground cabling. Our results indicate that five years after underground cabling and marking of power lines within core areas of the West-Pannonian distribution range of the Great Bustard, the population already benefited through a significantly decreased mortality rate. Both conservation measures most likely contributed strongly to the rapid recovery of the West-Pannonian Great Bustard population observed within the last decade.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Raab", "given" : "Rainer", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Sch\u00fctz", "given" : "Claudia", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Spakovszky", "given" : "P\u00e9ter", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Julius", "given" : "Eike", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Schulze", "given" : "Christian H", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Bird Conservation International", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2012", "12", "16" ] ] }, "page" : "299-306", "title" : "Underground cabling and marking of power lines: conservation measures rapidly reduced mortality of West-Pannonian Great Bustards", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "22" }, "uris" : [ "http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=2b190360-ac5a-4152-8e32-d1abbc45bd62" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Raab et al. 2012)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json" }(Raab et al. 2012). The potential of cabling to cause Great Bustard mortality should be explicitly considered in large-scale industrial developments in areas where populations are critically low.
Hunting: Elimination of hunting along the migration pathway is critical to the stabilization of migratory Great Bustard populations. However, adequate enforcement of hunting bans is challenging in rural areas of the Middle East, Central and Eastern Asia. Targeted public awareness campaigns should be undertaken in these areas to raise concern and reduce hunting among local people. Where illegal sport hunting by foreign citizens occurs, fines for foreign citizens should be increased. Prohibitions in sale of wild-caught game, which is also dangerous to consumers of meat from poisoned birds, should be better enforced at markets and restaurants.
Destruction of eggs and chicks: The timing of agricultural activities, and of Great Bustard nesting, varies across its broad Eurasian distribution. In breeding habitat outside of the EU, where such measures have already been implemented, research should be undertaken to assess the degree of compatibility between agricultural practices and Great Bustard breeding. EU states can play a valuable role in sharing knowledge and experience in developing appropriate subsidy schemes to provide high-quality breeding habitat.
4.3.2 Habitat protection
Protected areas: Across the Middle East, Central and eastern Asia, surveys should be undertaken to clarify lek sites. Where possible, satellite tracking would improve understanding of migratory routes. Leks, key migratory stopover sites, and wintering grounds hosting important populations of Great Bustard should be officially protected and, where necessary, backed up with enhanced anti-poaching enforcement and disturbance-reduction measures.
Subsidies for low-intensity agriculture: Agricultural intensification has played a major role in Great Bustard declines worldwide. State subsidies should provide incentives to maintain agricultural habitat in suitable condition for breeding Great Bustards. For example, where relevant, these incentives should discourage the use of agricultural chemicals that destroy the food base necessary for the growth of chicks or encourage the use of fallow periods to lessen disturbance. EU Range States with experience in such agricultural policy should share information on successful strategies to other Range States.
4.3.3 International communication
This listing will facilitate regular communication between Range States across the broad distribution of the Great Bustard. It will encourage information sharing from Range States with experience in Great Bustard conservation measures (e.g., States participating in the Memorandum of Understanding on Middle-European Populations) on best practices.
Turkey, the Russian Federation and China are non-Party Range States hosting important migratory Great Bustard populations. Communication and cooperation on conservation planning for Great Bustards should be pursued with these States, and ideally, agreements on conservation measures signed.
Severe winter weather occasionally precipitates migration of Great Bustards into countries in which they have not regularly occurred in contemporary times (e.g. southern Europe, Uzbekistan). Communication protocols between wildlife monitors should be established such that appropriate Range States are aware of potential irruptions and prepared to increase anti-poaching enforcement in appropriate areas.
4.3.3 Additional measures
Genetic diversity: When prioritizing conservation actions in regions with low genetic diversity, precautions should be taken to maintain genetic connectivity between extant Great Bustard populations. Urgent measures should be taken to improve the condition of the Asian subspecies, which suffers from low levels of genetic diversity.
Climate change: Modelling of shifts of suitable habitat in the Asian portion of the Great Bustards range under climate change scenarios should be undertaken. Conservation planning should place special emphasis on areas likely to maintain suitability for Great Bustard habitation under climate change conditions.
5. Range States
Active Range States: Afghanistan, ALBANIA, ARMENIA, AUSTRIA, Azerbaijan, Bosnia & Herzegovina, BULGARIA, China, CROATIA, CZECH REPUBLIC, Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea, GEORGIA, GERMANY, GREECE, HUNGARY, IRAN, Iraq, ITALY, KAZAKHSTAN, KYRGYZSTAN, MONGOLIA, MONTENEGRO, MOROCCO, PAKISTAN, PORTUGAL, Republic of Korea, ROMANIA, Russian Federation , SERBIA, SLOVAKIA, SPAIN, SYRIA, TAJIKISTAN, THE FORMER YUGOSLAV REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA, Turkey, Turkmenistan, UKRAINE, UZBEKISTAN
Range States with Extinction of Breeding Population: ALGERIA, Azerbaijan, BELARUS, BULGARIA, FINLAND, FRANCE, GREECE, POLAND, REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA, ROMANIA, SWEDEN, SWITZERLAND, SYRIAN ARAB REPUBLIC, TAJIKISTAN, TUNISIA
Great Bustards appear as vagrants in some of these countries. In others, they continue to overwinter, leading to their listing also as Active Range States.
Reintroduction: UNITED KINGDOM
Vagrant: ALGERIA, BELGIUM, CYPRUS, DENMARK, EGYPT, FINLAND, FRANCE, GREECE, IRELAND, ISRAEL, Japan, LATVIA, Lebanon, LUXEMBOURG, MALTA, NETHERLANDS, SAUDI ARABIA, SWEDEN, TUNISIA
Single vagrants or small populations occasionally reach many other countries, particularly during facultative migration due to severe weather events.
(CMS Parties are capitalized.)
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6. Comments from Range States
7. Additional remarks
8. References
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O p a r i n a , O . S . , L i t z b a r s k i , H . , O p a r i n , M . L . , V a t s k e , K . a n d K h r u s t o v , A . V 2 0 0 1 . 5@2K5 @57C;LB0BK ?> <83@0F88 4@>D !0@0B>2A:>3> 702>;6LO, ?>;CG5==K5 A ?><>ILN A?CB=8:>2>9 B5;5<5B@88 . O P \ ` b c d e f g j k l m ˻wl[lEl>- jA h
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